Recently, a number of studies have highlighted the importance of vertebrate skin microbiota. Skin microbiota have been shown to affect skin health/disease balance [17], provide antimicrobial protection to progeny [18] and even to regulate expression of innate immune genes in humans and mice [19, 20]. In amphibians, skin microbiota communities have been found to protect anuran and caudate amphibians against chytrid fungus infection and other invading pathogens [21, 22]. Feathers are unique keratin skin derivatives, representing an important evolutionary novelty of theropod dinosaurs and their recent descendants, birds [23]. Previous research using culture-based methods has revealed the presence of diverse microbiota inhabiting the feather surface, and has suggested links between these bacterial communities and heath- or condition-related traits in avian hosts [24,25,26]. To date, however, only three detailed studies using deep 16S rRNA sequencing have been published on microbiota inhabiting skin and its derivatives in free-living birds [14,15,16].
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The FM of our focal passerine species was dominated by the phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia and Planctomycetes, with Alphaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria dominant at class-level taxonomy. These results are consistent with a previous study investigating the FM of two sympatric lark species [14]. Our data revealed the existence of an FM phylotype distinct from FM profiles observed in most of our focal species, however, as well as those from previous studies [14, 76]. Interestingly, this phylotype was specific to sand martins and common redstarts, whose feathers were dominated by the phylum Firmicutes and the class Bacilli, with a high proportion of the genera Streptococcus and Lactobacillus. The genus Streptococcus is a common member of core human skin microbiota and represents a key commensals inhabiting the skin of healthy individuals [17]. Pathological increases in the abundance of streptococci are usually linked to skin damage caused by disease or immunocompromised individuals [77, 78]. In the present study, we can exclude pathological cutaneous infection as a cause of the high prevalence of streptococci in the feathers of these species as we sampled multiple individuals from geographically segregated populations. Furthermore, a recent study [79] analysing skin microbiota across mammals revealed a high abundance (16%) of the genus Streptococcus in a chiropteran species, the Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus). Similarly, the family Streptococcaceae accounts for 3 to 24% of the total bacterial community on fish skin [80]. It would appear, therefore, that streptococci are common skin commensals in many free-living vertebrates, having a beneficial rather than pathogenic function for the host [17]. On the other hand, the genus Lactobacillus has only been identified as a member of the core skin microbiota of humans [81] and free-living primates [79] to date. Thus, the present study provides first evidence for the occurrence of these potentially beneficial symbiotic microorganisms inhabiting skin derivatives of non-mammalian vertebrates.
According to scholars, Indian forces have committed many human rights abuses and acts of terror against the Kashmiri civilian population, including extrajudicial killing, rape, torture, and enforced disappearances.[20][28][29] According to Amnesty International, no member of the Indian military deployed in Jammu and Kashmir has been tried for human rights violations in a civilian court as of June 2015[update], although military courts-martial have been held.[30] Amnesty International has also accused the Indian government of refusing to prosecute perpetrators of abuses in the region.[31] Brad Adams, the Asia director at Human Rights Watch said in 2006 "Although 'Azad' means 'free', the residents of Azad Kashmir are anything but free. The Pakistani authorities govern Azad Kashmir with strict controls on basic freedoms".[32] The OHCHR reports on Kashmir released two reports on "the situation of human rights in Indian-Administered Kashmir and Pakistan-Administered Kashmir".
Several international agencies and the UN have reported human rights violations in Indian-administered Kashmir. In a 2008 press release the OHCHR spokesmen stated "The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights is concerned about the recent violent protests in Indian-administered Kashmir that have reportedly led to civilian casualties as well as restrictions to the right to freedom of assembly and expression."[243] A 1996 Human Rights Watch report accuses the Indian military and Indian-government backed paramilitaries of "committ[ing] serious and widespread human rights violations in Kashmir."[461] Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society labels the happenings in Kashmir as war crimes and genocide and have issued a statement that those responsible should be tried in court of law.[462][463] Some of the massacres by security forces include Gawakadal massacre, Zakoora and Tengpora massacre and Handwara massacre. Another such alleged massacre occurred on 6 January 1993 in the town of Sopore. TIME magazine described the incident as such: "In retaliation for the killing of one soldier, paramilitary forces rampaged through Sopore's market, setting buildings ablaze and shooting bystanders. The Indian government pronounced the event 'unfortunate' and claimed that an ammunition dump had been hit by gunfire, setting off fires that killed most of the victims."[464] A state government inquiry into 22 October 1993 Bijbehara killings, in which the Indian military fired on a procession and killed 40 people and injured 150, found out that the firing by the forces was 'unprovoked' and the claim of the military that it was in retaliation was 'concocted and baseless'. However, the accused are still to be punished.[465] In its report of September 2006, Human Rights Watch stated:
Many human rights organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch (HRW) have condemned human rights abuses in Kashmir by Indians such as "extra-judicial executions", "disappearances", and torture.[467] Bans on religious gatherings are also reportedly enforced.[468] The "Armed Forces Special Powers Act" grants the military, wide powers of arrest, the right to shoot to kill, and to occupy or destroy property in counterinsurgency operations. Indian officials claim that troops need such powers because the army is only deployed when national security is at serious risk from armed combatants. Such circumstances, they say, call for extraordinary measures. Human rights organisations have also asked the Indian government to repeal[469] the Public Safety Act, since "a detainee may be held in administrative detention for a maximum of two years without a court order."[470] A 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees determined that Indian Administered Kashmir was only 'partly free'.[471] A recent report by Amnesty International stated that up to 20,000 people have been detained under a law called AFSPA in Indian-administered Kashmir.[470][467][472][473]
Claims of religious discrimination and restrictions on religious freedom in Azad Kashmir have been made against Pakistan.[522] The country is also accused of systemic suppression of free speech and demonstrations against the government.[523][522] UNHCR reported that a number of Islamist militant groups, including al-Qaeda, operate from bases in Pakistani-administered Kashmir with the tacit permission of ISI[521][522] There have also been several allegations of human rights abuse.[521]
In 2006, Human Rights Watch accused ISI and the military of systemic torture with the purpose of "punishing" errant politicians, political activists and journalists in Azad Kashmir.[524] According to Brad Adams, the Asia director at Human Rights Watch, the problems of human rights abuses in Azad Kashmir were not "rampant" but they needed to be addressed, and that the severity of human rights issues in Indian-administered Kashmir were "much, much, much greater".[525] A report titled "Kashmir: Present Situation and Future Prospects", submitted to the European Parliament by Emma Nicholson, was critical of the lack of human rights, justice, democracy, and Kashmiri representation in the Pakistan National Assembly.[526] According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, Pakistan's ISI operates in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and is accused of involvement in extensive surveillance, arbitrary arrests, torture, and murder.[522] The 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees determined that Pakistan-administered Kashmir was 'not free'.[522] According to Shaukat Ali, chairman of the International Kashmir Alliance, "On one hand Pakistan claims to be the champion of the right of self-determination of the Kashmiri people, but she has denied the same rights under its controlled parts of Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan".[527]
Geels, Frank (2010)The role of the cities in technological transitions: analytical clarifications and historical examples. In: Bulkeley, Harriet, Castán Broto, Vanesa, Mike, Hodson and Simon, Marvin (eds.) Cities and low carbon transitions. Routledge studies in human geography . Routledge, pp. 13-28. ISBN 9780415586979 2ff7e9595c
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